Marine Archives - Hawkins Forensic Investigation

Keeping the Lights On

Chloe Duggan — Mon, 27 Apr 2026 13:10:45 +0000

The Importance of Fuel Systems in Marine Operations

When combining diesel combustion engines with aeroderivative gas turbines in power generation assets and mechanical drive systems, the fuel specification and adherence to the specification are critical. Compliance ensures the optimal operation, and longevity of the asset and minimises down time.

In marine installations, large vessels can have a mix of propulsion drive systems. Typically, these consist solely of large diesel units, however, in some large vessels, the addition of gas turbines can be found – for that extra bit of thrust/speed.

Both can be susceptible to damage and loss of power if issues exist within the fuel supply system, problems can be caused by using the wrong fuel, or if contaminants are present in the fuel system. If contamination occurs, this can lead to a sudden loss of power which can affect the safety of the vessel. Contamination can compromise the integrity of not only the engine, but also the fuel system, which will require draining and cleaning; both of which will be costly and time consuming to execute. A typical propulsion system schematic is shown in Figure 1. This shows two diesel units and one gas turbine in a two-propeller propulsion system.

If fuel issues arise, both power unit types can be affected. In the example below, I look at how fuel contamination can lead to a buildup of deposits in the fuel system, especially in the final fuel delivery section, which in a gas turbine is the fuel nozzles. The fuel nozzles are complex components that premixes fuel with compressed air and inject the fuel mixture into the combustion can. Combustors see the hottest temperatures.

A schematic diagram of a typical fuel nozzle in a single annular combustor (SAC) is shown in Figure 2. The fuel nozzle is the final link prior to the fuel being atomised into the compressed air flow and ignited.

Issues in the fuel system can be detected by the gas turbine monitoring systems which include temperature and pressure sensors. In SAC gas turbines, there are around 30 fuel nozzles. If issues are developing, the temperature spread around the combustor is likely to change and exceed the permitted temperature spread which is typically limited to approximately 100 to 150°C across eight thermocouples dispersed around the turbine. The fuel pressures in the delivery pipework will also increase as blockages develop. These are both indicators of problems in the fuel supply system, and monitoring of the system’s sensors is of critical importance.

In the case study that follows, excessive temperature spreads and reduced power output were detected over a 72-hour period, indicating an issue with the combustion that required further investigation. This shows how rapid the degradation can be once coking occurs.

Once an issue has been identified, there are limited options for a vessel at sea. The first is to inspect the fuel nozzles to see if there are any visible signs of distress. If deposits are found as in the example below, then all the fuel nozzles will likely need to be replaced. On a gas turbine, each fuel nozzle can cost in excess of 5,000 USD, and a vessel will not carry a spare set on board.

To determine the source of deposits, a laboratory examination of the affected nozzles will be required.

A typical suite of tests includes:

Case Study

Visual examination of the nozzles from the gas turbine that had exhibited excessive T-48 temperature spreads (Figure 3), revealed remnants of liquid fuel, with both the primary and the secondary fuel line blocked by deposits. The primary flow line had been cleared prior to receipt into the laboratory but was reported to be blocked on removal from the gas turbine.

Within the residual fuel, solid deposits were found that were collected and examined. The solid deposits revealed a layered structure (Figure 4) consistent with deposits forming over several operating cycles (stops). This appearance is consistent with coking of the fuel during shut down and thermal soak back. Soak back is the cooling off period after shutdown and can be challenging as it can lead to very high temperatures in the engine damaging equipment back equipment¹. The appearance would also indicate that a purge cycle was not undertaken to remove residual fuel from the fuel line in the area.

The samples collected were analysed using an EDS analyser attached to an SEM. This revealed the deposits to be predominately carbon, however significant traces of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) were detected in areas exhibiting a cubic crystal form (Figure 5). The cubic crystals were observed in all samples examined.

The coking found in the fuel nozzles would indicate that issues were present in the purge sequence of the fuel lines on shut down. In most industrial gas turbine applications, on shut down, the fuel manifold is purged with compressed air to clear the line of residual fuel to minimise the possibility of coking. This did not appear to have occurred. The presence of cubic crystals of sodium chloride indicated contamination of the fuel by ingress of sodium chloride rich solute, such as seawater into the fuel system at some stage.

Besides the issues generated by the coking on the fuel combustion, the gas turbine had been exposed to elevated levels of sodium, which had passed through the high-pressure turbine section. At the temperatures in the hot section of the turbine (high-pressure turbine) this can lead to Type 2 hot corrosion of the turbine blades (which are more expensive than the fuel nozzles). This can lead to a catastrophic failure of the unit if not rectified.

Normally, sodium levels in fuels are specified/restricted to levels down to parts per billion to avoid this degradation mechanism. On the completion of the analysis, it was clear that further investigation was required, into the operating procedures and fuel monitoring during the operation of the vessel.

About the Author

Stephen is a forensic metallurgist with extensive global experience providing independent materials and corrosion advice to multi-national companies within the built environment and engineering industries.

He has over 25 years of experience undertaking failure and root cause analysis for clients in the power, process, and pipeline sectors and has acted as an expert witness across the globe.

¹Predicting engine soak-back with SALAMANDER | Clean (clean-aviation.eu)

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Avoiding a Case of the Blues

Chloe Duggan — Mon, 23 Mar 2026 09:04:41 +0000

Blueberries are a popular ‘superfruit’ with global consumption continuing to increase. In 2023, over 45% of world production was exported. Blueberries can have a shelf-life of up to three months and can be stored below 5°C for up to seven weeks, making them suitable for long-distance transport. However, when a container of blueberries reaches its destination, there could be a ‘case of the blues’ if they have spoilt in transit. In these cases, a forensic investigator can determine where in the supply chain things have gone pear-shaped.

Here Comes The Sun

Optimising a long shelf life starts with good crop husbandry to control pests and diseases. In hot climates, the crop is grown under shade netting, protecting the fruit from sunscald, with polytunnels used to prevent damage by heavy rain or hail in wetter climates. Blueberries should be picked at the 85–90% blue stage in dry conditions in the morning, before heat builds up in the fruit. High humidity at harvest promotes rots and moulds, and berries picked at more than 90% blue stage have a shorter shelf life. Once picked, blueberries should be cooled within five hours as, high temperatures accelerate fruit degradation.

Blueberries are sometimes harvested into crates in the field, but frequent handling removes wax from the skin. This reduces the nutritional quality, accelerates water loss, and speeds decay. To minimise handling, growers are increasingly picking berries directly into branded clamshell retail punnets.

Time to Chill

After harvest, blueberries remain metabolically active, so respiration, ripening and cell aging continue. Upon arrival at the packing facility, the temperature of the berries should be lowered to near 0°C by forced cooling immediately. Temperatures below 2°C for 96 hours kill fruit fly eggs and render mould spores inactive. Care is needed though – while insufficient cooling reduces shelf life, temperatures below 0°C increase chilling injury risk to the berries.

Like many fruits, some blueberry varieties ripen when exposed to the ripening hormone, ethylene. Knowing which variety is being shipped is important, as removing ethylene from storage air can delay their ripening. Ethylene absorbing sachets can help, but add cost.

Happy Atmosphere

Controlled atmosphere transport involves increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) and decreasing oxygen concentrations in an airtight container. Some ‘reefer’ (refrigeration) systems offer a CO2 injection option, allowing containers to be pre-charged to 15% CO2 for blueberries. The auxiliary supply automatically tops up CO2 during transit. However, CO2 supply failure can lead to increased metabolic activity and subsequent fruit breakdown.

Modified atmosphere packaging initially alters the atmosphere inside the pack, but it changes over time. A range of perforated bags are available from manufacturers to wrap entire pallets or individual crates. It is important to use the correct wrapping to avoid losses.

Active packaging changes the condition of the atmosphere to extend shelf-life. Sodium metabisulphite pads release sulphur dioxide (SO2) gas, which kills fungal spores, sanitises small wounds on the fruit surface and maintains the relative humidity within the package at around 89%.

The pads must be placed on top of pallets before wrapping, as SO2 is heavier than air. In addition, the pad must not be allowed to come into direct contact with the blueberries because it is toxic to plant material. Incorrect positioning of these pads can cause mould spoilage or skin bleaching.

Breaking The Mould

More than a dozen moulds can affect blueberries, and an increase in temperature above 2°C stimulates spore germination, initiating irreversible fungal growth, spoiling the shipment. Some moulds, such as Anthracnose (Colletotrichum species) and Grey Mould (Botrytis species) originate in the field due to poor hygiene. Others, such as Blue Mould (Penicillium species), colonise berries during transit due to poor conditions. SO2 primarily controls the mould Botrytis cinerea, a major cause of blueberry spoilage.

Over 300 pests can affect blueberries. One major field pest is the Spotted Wing Fruit Fly (Drosophila suzukii), whilst other fruit fly species colonise the fruit post-harvest. Correct mould or pest identification helps establish liability in the event of a claim.

When The Ship Comes in

Reefer containers maintain the temperature of pre-cooled produce but cannot reduce it further. Pallets should be positioned inside the container to allow for the uniform circulation of cold air. Humidity levels inside the container must also be carefully controlled as too much can promote mould, whereas too little can lead to fruit dehydration and shrivelling.

Take Out Some Insurance On Me

Failing to take the critical steps highlighted above could lead to a ‘case of the blues’ on arrival and an expensive insurance claim.

When faced with a container of spoilt blueberries, it can be daunting for the owner to ascertain how best to understand the root cause and whether the damage is a result of issues during growing, storage or transportation of the crop. A detailed forensic investigation using industry knowledge and expertise in plant diseases can help establish where and why things went wrong and where liability should be attributed.

About The Author

With over 25 years of experience, Plant Pathologist James Townsend has expertise in berries, fresh produce, horticulture and agriculture and is experienced in investigating the causes of plant diseases, crop failures and spoilage of fresh produce. James regularly investigates crop germination failures, crop storage problems, fallen trees, mould contamination, pesticide damage, wildfires and plant disease outbreaks in domestic commercial settings.

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Investigating Failures in Coastal Marine Structures

Chloe Duggan — Tue, 16 Dec 2025 15:28:39 +0000

Coastal marine structures such as jetties, piers, slipways, dry docks, and intake/outfall systems face unique challenges from harsh environments and operational demands. This webinar examines common types of physical damage and degradation affecting these structures, including case studies where initial assumptions, such as ship collision claims, were disproven.

Understanding the root cause of such incidents is critical for accurately determining liability and, ultimately, claim outcomes.

Join Civil Engineer Jane Cook for insights into failure mechanisms, investigative methodologies, and lessons learned from real-world examples.

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Jessica Ng Featured in The Marine Insurer

Chloe Duggan — Tue, 16 Dec 2025 11:46:55 +0000

Fires involving containerised charcoal cargoes remain a serious and persistent issue in the shipping industry, despite longstanding warnings and safety protocols. These incidents are often linked to misdeclared shipments, where charcoal is disguised under various trade names, making it difficult to identify and regulate appropriately.

In her article, Jessica Ng explores the risks associated with transporting charcoal, a material susceptible to self-heating and spontaneous combustion when exposed to oxygen and moisture. She highlights how improper handling, such as inadequate cooling, poor ventilation, or exposure to heat, can lead to fires, sometimes occurring days or even weeks after shipment.

Jessica highlights recent changes to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, in particular the removal of Special Provision 925 and the introduction of Special Provision 978. These changes eliminate exemptions that previously allowed certain charcoal products to be shipped as non-dangerous goods. Now, all charcoal must be declared as dangerous cargo, with stringent requirements for temperature control, ventilation, and pre-shipment treatment.

Jessica urges shippers and carriers to adopt proactive safety measures before the mandatory enforcement date in 2026, emphasising the importance of accurate declaration, thorough inspections, and adherence to the updated code to mitigate fire risks.

Jessica Ng is a Senior Associate at Hawkins & Associates, based in our Hong Kong office. With a background in Physical Science and a Master’s degree in Forensic Science from King’s College London, Jessica has been with Hawkins since 2015. She specialises in fire and explosion investigations, contamination assessments, and agricultural cargo claims. Her expertise spans residential and commercial fires, marine incidents, and complex cargo-related cases, including those involving liquefaction and chemical contamination.

If you need Jessica or any other Hawkins expert to investigate a marine claim, contact us here.

You can read Jessica’s article on page 61 of The Marine Insurer here: https://issuu.com/cannonevents/docs/the_marine_insurer_oct_issue_22_

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Nico Zurcher Celebrates 10 Years at Hawkins

Chloe Duggan — Fri, 12 Dec 2025 12:23:17 +0000

This month, we celebrate Nico Zurcher, who marks a decade of dedicated service at Hawkins. Nico’s journey with Hawkins began in 2015, when he joined our London office to strengthen our growing International and Shipping Incidents team. In 2020 Nico relocated to run our Hong Kong office, and played a key role in expanding Hawkins’ presence across Asia and supporting complex international investigations. Over the years, Nico’s expertise and commitment have been instrumental in delivering exceptional service to our clients worldwide.

Nico holds an MSc in Environmental Management and a BSc in Biology with Oceanography, qualifications, which laid the foundation for his early career in environmental consultancy. Before joining Hawkins, he worked on major government marine projects in Hong Kong, as well as oil, gas, and mining projects throughout Asia.

During his time at Hawkins, Nico has investigated a wide range of land-based and marine incidents including:

Reflecting on his time at Hawkins, Nico had the following to say:

“It’s been an absolute pleasure working at Hawkins this last decade. The work is almost always very interesting, which in itself would be enough. But I also get to work with a great set of knowledgeable, curious and fun colleagues, and our site work can take us to some fascinating and unusual places. We have the good fortune to work in a profession that combines science, communication and people. I certainly hadn’t set out to do this, but I’m very glad I ended up here.”

Beyond his investigative work, Nico serves as a Business Development Manager based in our London office, a role in which he connects clients with the right experts across Hawkins’ diverse and ever-growing number of disciplines and plays a vital role in building relationships, understanding client needs, and ensuring Hawkins delivers timely, high-quality forensic support.

We thank Nico for his dedication, expertise, and the positive impact he’s made over the past 10 years, and we look forward to his continued contributions in the years ahead.

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Subsea Power Cable Forensics: Failure Modes and Key Risk Issues

Chloe Duggan — Wed, 10 Dec 2025 11:16:14 +0000

Subsea power cables are the backbone of offshore wind energy, yet their failure can have far-reaching consequences.

In this presentation, Subsea cable expert, Hugh Martindale will explore the growing demand for offshore wind and the critical role of subsea power cables in supporting this expansion. He will examine the significant consequences of cable failure—such as property damage, business interruption, and the logistical challenges of repair and replacement—and provide a detailed overview of common failure modes, from mechanical damage and environmental stress to manufacturing and installation issues.

Hugh will conclude by outlining industry efforts to reduce these risks through improved design standards, advanced monitoring technologies, and collaborative data sharing. Attendees will gain valuable insight into forensic investigation of cable failures, insurance implications, and proactive measures to enhance reliability and resilience in offshore energy infrastructure.

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John Gow Shares Insights at Marine Insurance Nordics

Chloe Duggan — Fri, 05 Dec 2025 11:01:49 +0000

Hawkins’ Marine Fire expert John Gow, recently spoke at Marine Insurance Nordics, sharing his expertise on fire prevention. His presentation, “Loss Prevention: More Risk Management, Lower Claims?”, addressed the growing challenges of fire prevention in the maritime industry and emphasised the critical role of proactive strategies in reducing claims.

John highlighted several key points:

Fire incidents are rising, 2024 saw a decade-high increase of 20%, with container ships and Roll on/Roll off carriers most affected.
Misdeclared cargo remains a major risk factor, contributing to severe accidents and fires.
Regulatory frameworks provide strong foundations, but struggle to keep pace with evolving vessel sizes, new propulsion systems, and emerging technologies.
Fire prevention is more than compliance: it requires a holistic approach combining design, training, emergency response, and leadership commitment at every level.
Future solutions could include automated fire suppression, more advanced firefighting equipment, smart sensors that connect to the internet to share data, and AI-driven decision support systems.

John emphasised that loss prevention starts with robust safety management systems to leadership-driven culture, and that many fire events are preventable with the right measures in place. John left his audience with a strong final message, “Fire does not discriminate! An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure!”

John is an experienced fire investigator, with extensive expertise in marine fire incidents. He has provided expert testimony and guidance in numerous high-profile cases, including fatal accident inquiries in both criminal and civil courts.

Drawing on his background as an operational firefighter, John has acted as a specialist in firefighting practices, as well as an origin and cause expert, often combining both roles. His investigations have supported underwriters, charterers, cargo interests, and salvors across a wide range of vessels, including container ships, Ro-Pax ferries, PCTCs (Pure Car and Truck Carriers), cruise ships, and tankers.

If you would like John to deliver a presentation to your organisation or assist with a marine-related investigation, please contact us.

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John Gow Presents at Marine Claims International

Chloe Duggan — Mon, 27 Oct 2025 09:00:33 +0000

We are delighted to share that John Gow, Marine Fire Expert at Hawkins, recently presented “Fighting Fire at Sea” at the Marine Claims International Conference in Dublin.

John’s talk explored the rising number of shipboard fires and the evolving risks facing the maritime industry. He highlighted the increase in fire incidents involving container ships, cargo vessels, and car carriers, and discussed the growing complexity of fire safety at sea. His presentation covered the latest international regulations and safety codes, as well as advancements in fire detection and suppression technologies, including AI-driven systems and autonomous firefighting robots.

John also emphasised the importance of crew training in prevention and response and addressed new challenges posed by alternative fuels and electric vehicles. Drawing on recent high-profile incidents, he shared practical lessons and expert insights into how the industry is adapting to improve safety and resilience.

John’s expertise and engaging delivery were well received, sparking valuable conversations around safety innovation and regulatory change. A highly experienced fire investigator, specialising in marine fires, John has provided expert testimony in both criminal and civil courts including fatal accident inquiries. A former operational firefighter, he has acted as a firefighting expert, and origin and cause specialist in investigations for underwriters, charterers, cargo interests, and salvors. His work spans a wide range of vessels including container ships, Ro-Pax, PCTC (Pure Car and Truck Carriers), cruise ships, and tankers.

If you would like John to present to your organisation or investigate a marine-related incident, please contact us.

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Hawkins Marine Webinars

Matthew Carrington — Fri, 29 Aug 2025 10:15:04 +0000

From October to December 2025, join our Marine experts as they host a new series of webinars. This series will cover a range of topics, including cargo spoilage, the use of AI in marine investigations and shipping fires.

For webinar details and to register, please see below.

If you would like further information on each webinar before registering, please click on the titles below. Our events page provides details of other Hawkins events that you may find of interest.

Marine Experts & AI: A Stormy Match Made in Heaven?

Presented by Dr Sophie Parsons
Thursday 16th October 2025 at 9.30am BST

Dr Sophie Parsons, Hawkins’ Head of Marine Investigations and Regional Director in Hong Kong, will explore the advantages and disadvantages of using AI throughout the stages of a marine investigation. She will also discuss how AI may influence our role and perception as independent experts.

Hell or High Water: The Challenges of Dealing with Ship Fires

Presented by John Gow
Thursday 30th October 2025 at 9.30am GMT

In this Webinar marine fire expert, John Gow explores the complex realities of fighting fires at sea. Drawing on real-world cases and frontline experience, he will examine the unique obstacles faced by crews and emergency responders when tackling shipboard blazes. From containment strategies to coordination challenges, this session offers insights into one of maritime’s most pressing safety issues.

Watertight Investigations: Hull Corrosion Analysis

Presented by Dr Giuseppe Scatigno
Thursday 13th November 2025 at 9.30am GMT

Hull Corrosion is an inevitable challenge in marine environments, but when it leads to significant damage, determining liability can be complex. Using real-world case studies, including Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system analysis and ultrasonic testing, Forensic Materials Engineer, Dr Giuseppe Scatigno explains how to identify corrosion mechanisms, establish timelines of degradation, and rule out secondary causes such as grounding or material defects.

Avoiding a Case of The Blues

Presented by James Townsend
Thursday 27th November 2025 at 9.30am GMT

Fruit cargoes are vulnerable to spoilage at every stage of their journey including harvest through to delivery. In this webinar, Forensic Plant Pathologist, James Townsend shares how forensic investigation can uncover the causes of cargo damage. Drawing on real-world investigations, James will highlight critical factors for storage and transport, and explore how a variety of causes can lead to spoilage.

Hull & Machinery: Mechanical Failure Investigation

Presented by Dr Philippa Moore
Thursday 11th December 2025 at 9.30am GMT

In this webinar, Forensic Metallurgist Dr Philippa Moore explores the critical components of ships and port-side equipment that are vulnerable to mechanical damage and failure — from engines, propellers, and rudders to cranes and other heavy machinery.

We look forward to presenting for you.

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Marine Experts & AI: A Stormy Match Made in Heaven?

Jodie — Thu, 28 Aug 2025 14:57:11 +0000

The use of AI in the workplace is a contentious issue, and the maritime community is no exception. AI is becoming increasingly common in day-to-day operations across all professions. As forensic marine experts, should we embrace the rise of this technology, or should we resist it?

Dr Sophie Parsons, Hawkins’ Head of Marine Investigations and Regional Director in Hong Kong, explores the advantages and disadvantages of using AI throughout the stages of a marine investigation. She also discusses how AI may influence our role and perception as independent experts.

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